Relative pronouns and relative clauses

WHO
	RELATIVE PRONOUN (SUBJECT) (DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES)	RP01 RP02 RP03 RP10
#1	Used to show which person or people you mean. We don't use commas in defining relative clauses: SUBJECT + WHO/THAT + VERB (RELATIVE CLAUSE)	IC/PART 1 + RP + RC + IC/PART 2
#1		His sister lives in Spain. She is a nurse. HIS SISTER = SUBJECT His sister who lives in Spain is a nurse. HE HAS SEVERAL SISTERS. THE SPANISH ONE IS A NURSE.

	RELATIVE PRONOUN (OBJECT) (DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES)	RP07 RP09
#2	Used to show which person or people you mean. We can leave out the relative pronoun if it refers to the object of the sentence: OBJECT + (WHO/WHOM/THAT) + SUBJECT + VERB (RELATIVE CLAUSE)	IC/PART 1 + RP + RC + IC/PART 2
#2		He wanted to see the man. He was away on business. HE = SUBJECT \| THE MAN = OBJECT The man (who) he wanted to see was away on business. RELATIVE PRONOUN BEFORE (SUBJECT + VERB) CAN BE OMITTED

	RELATIVE PRONOUN (SUBJECT) (NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES)	RP06 RP07 RP08
#3	Used to give extra, non-essential information about a person or thing. You must separate these clauses with commas: SUBJECT + COMMA + WHO + VERB (RELATIVE CLAUSE) + COMMA + VERB + NOUN	IC/PART 1 + COMMA + RP + RC + COMMA + IC/PART 2
#3		His sister lives in Spain. She is a nurse. HIS SISTER = SUBJECT His sister, who lives in Spain, is a nurse. HE HAS ONLY ONE SISTER. SHE HAPPENS TO LIVE IN SPAIN.

WHICH
	RELATIVE PRONOUN (SUBJECT) (DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES)	RP01 RP02 RP03 RP04 RP08 RP09
#1	Used to be exact about things or animals that you mean. We don't use commas in defining relative clauses: S + V + N (INDEPENDENT CLAUSE) + WHICH/THAT + RELATIVE CLAUSE	IC + RP + RC
#1		We've got a car. It might interest you. THE CAR = SUBJECT We've got a car which might interest you. 'WHICH' JOINS THE TWO CLAUSES TOGETHER

	RELATIVE PRONOUN (SUBJECT) (DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES)	RP05 RP07
#2	We often use which with prepositions. Some formal styles prefer to use a preposition before 'which': S + V + N (INDEPENDENT CLAUSE) + PREPOSITION + WHICH + RELATIVE CLAUSE	IC + PREP + RP + RC
#2		I cannot trace the letter to which you refer.

	RELATIVE PRONOUN (SUBJECT) (NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES)	RP01 RP02 RP03 RP04 RP06 RP07 RP08 RP09 RP10
#3	Used to give extra, non-essential information about a person or thing. You must separate these clauses with commas: SUBJECT + COMMA + WHICH + VERB (RELATIVE CLAUSE) + COMMA + VERB + NOUN	IC/PART 1 + COMMA + RP + RC + COMMA + IC/PART 2
#3		My jacket is black. It has a stain. MY JACKET = SUBJECT My jacket, which is black, has a stain. WHICH IS BLACK = NON-ESSENTIAL INFORMATION

WHOM
	RELATIVE CLAUSES (OBJECT) (DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES)	RP01 RP06 RP07 RP08
#1	Used instead of 'who' as the object of a verb or preposition in formal English sentence structures. We can leave out the relative pronoun if it refers to the object of the sentence: OBJECT + (WHOM/WHO/THAT) + SUBJECT + VERB (RELATIVE CLAUSE)	IC/PART 1 + RP + RC + IC/PART 2
#1		The policeman wasn't on duty. I was hoping to see him. THE POLICEMAN = SUBJECT The policeman (whom) I was hoping to see wasn't on duty. RELATIVE PRONOUN BEFORE (SUBJECT + VERB) CAN BE OMITTED

	RELATIVE CLAUSES (OBJECT) (NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES)	RP01 RP10
#2	'Whom' is always used when it is preceded by quantifiers and numbers: all of, any of, both of, enough of, few of, many of, none of, several of and some of: S + V + O + COMMA + QUANTIFIER + OF + WHOM + RELATIVE CLAUSE	IC + COMMA + Q + OF + RP + RC
#2		We counted thirty participants, many of whom ran in bare feet.

	RELATIVE CLAUSES (OBJECT) (DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES)	RP05 RP09
#3	In formal or written English, the preposition is often placed before the relative pronoun, and in this case the pronoun cannot be omitted: S + V + O + PREPOSITION + WHOM + RELATIVE CLAUSE	IC + PREP + RP + RC
#3		I met a man. I used to work with him. A MAN = OBJECT I met a man with whom I used to work. FORMAL

THAT
	RELATIVE PRONOUN (OBJECT/SUBJECT) (DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES)	RP02 RP03 RP04 RP07 RP09 RP10
#1	The pronouns 'who, whom, and which' are often replaced by 'that' in spoken English. 'That' is not used with non-defining relative clauses:	The meal that I ordered was delicious. THAT = WHICH Alice is a secretary that works in Brighton. THAT = WHO This is my friend that I like a lot. THAT = WHO/WHOM


	RELATIVE PRONOUN (OBJECT/SUBJECT) (DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES)	RP04 RP06
#2	We normally prefer 'that' ,not 'which', after 'everything, anything, all, little, much, nothing, the only and superlatives': S + V + ALL/EVERYTHING/NOTHING/THE ONLY + THAT + RELATIVE CLAUSE	IC + ALL + THAT + RC
#2		I'm so grateful for all that you've done.

WHOSE
	RELATIVE PRONOUN (SUBJECT) (DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES)	RP01 RP02 RP03 RP06 RP07 RP08 RP09 RP10
#1	Used to introduce a relative clause indicating possession by people, animals and things: SUBJECT + WHOSE + NOUN + RELATIVE CLAUSE	IC/PART 1 + RP + RC + IC/PART 2
#1		The artist is famous. His paintings are on the wall. THE ARTIST = SUBJECT The artist whose paintings are on the wall is famous.

OMITTING RELATIVE PRONOUNS
	RELATIVE PRONOUN (OBJECT) (DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES)	RP07 RP08
#1	The relative pronoun can be omitted only if the relative pronoun is followed by a noun or pronoun: OBJECT + WHO/WHOM/WHICH/THAT + SUBJECT (PRONOUN/NOUN) + VERB (RELATIVE CLAUSE)	IC/PART 1 + NOUN + VERB + RC + IC/PART 2
#1		The woman the police arrested was found guilty of first-degree murder.

	RELATIVE PRONOUN (OBJECT) (DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES)	RP08
#2	The relative pronoun cannot be omitted if the relative pronoun is directly followed by a verb: OBJECT + WHO/WHOM/WHICH/THAT + VERB (RELATIVE CLAUSE)	IC/PART 1 + RP + VERB + RC + IC/PART 2
#2		The man who called me is my boss.

WHY
	RELATIVE ADVERB (REASON)	RP02 RP06 RP07
#1	Used to ask or talk about the reason for something. We can also use why as a relative pronoun after the word 'reason': S + V + N + WHY + RELATIVE CLAUSE	IC + RP + RC
#1		I'd like to know the reason why you're so late.

WHERE
	RELATIVE ADVERB (PLACE)	RP06 RP07 RP10
#1	To, at, or in what place. In formal English, a phrase with preposition + which (on which, in which, to which) can often be used instead: S + V + N + WHERE + RELATIVE CLAUSE	IC + RP + RC
#1		This is the hotel where we spent our honeymoon.

WHEN
	RELATIVE ADVERB (TIME)	RP06 RP07 RP10
#1	At what time; at the time. In formal English, a phrase with preposition + which (at which, in which, on which) can often be used instead: S + V + N + WHEN + RELATIVE CLAUSE	IC + RP + RC
#1		I'll never forget the day when we graduated.

WHAT
	NOMINAL RELATIVE PRONOUN	RP01 RP04 RP06 RP07
#1	The thing(s) that; that which. We use 'what' as 'noun + relative pronoun' together: S + V + WHAT + NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSE	IC + NP + NRC
#1		We gave them the money that they needed. WHAT = THE MONEY THAT We gave them what they needed.

*The relative pronoun can only be omitted when it is the object of the defining relative clause.
	WHICH	THAT	WHO	WHOM	WHOSE	OF WHICH
PEOPLE
THINGS/OBJECTS/ANIMALS
SUBJECT
OBJECT
POSSESSIVE
CAN BE OMITTED*

SPECIAL NOTES
#1		In non-defining relative clauses, 'who/whom/which' cannot be replaced with 'that':	My grandfather, that is dead now, came from the North of Germany.
#1			My grandfather, who is dead now, came from the North of Germany.

#2		We normally prefer 'that' ,not 'which', after 'everything, anything, all, little, much, nothing, the only and superlatives':	They ate everything which was set in front of them.
#2			They ate everything that was set in front of them.

#3		The relative pronoun cannot be omitted in defining relative clauses if the relative pronoun is directly followed by a verb:	I'm reading the Hunger Games was written by Suzanne Collins.
#3			I'm reading the Hunger Games which was written by Suzanne Collins.

#4		'That' is already the object of the verb 'bought':	The washing machine that we bought it last month is broken.
#4		'That' is already the object of the verb 'bought':	The washing machine that we bought last month is broken.

#5		'Whom' cannot be the subject of the relative clause:	The man whom has just walked out is Adam.
#5		'Whom' cannot be the subject of the relative clause:	The man who has just walked out is Adam.

- CEFR-Level A1 (Beginner)

- CEFR-Level A2 (Pre-Intermediate)

- CEFR-Level B1 (Intermediate)

- CEFR-Level B2 (Upper-Intermediate)

- CEFR-Level C1 (Advanced)

- CEFR-Level C2 (Proficiency)
RP01 - PET GRAMMAR SECTION
RP01 - FCE GRAMMAR SECTION
RP01 - ADVANCED VOCABULARY SECTION
sth - something | sb - somebody
RC - relative clause | NRC - nominal relative clause | RP - relative pronoun | NP - nominal pronoun | IC - independent clause
V - verb | S - subject | O - object | Q - quantifiers PREP - preposition